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Visual servoing

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<div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content mw-content-ltr" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr">Visual servoing, also known as vision-based robot control and abbreviated VS, is a technique which uses feedback information extracted from a vision sensor (visual feedback<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a>) to control the motion of a <a href="Robot" title="Robot">robot</a>. One of the earliest papers that talks about visual servoing was from the SRI International Labs in 1979.<a href="#cite_note-Agin1979-2">[2]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Visual_servoing_taxonomy">Visual servoing taxonomy</h2></div>

There are two fundamental configurations of the robot end-effector (hand) and the camera:<a href="#cite_note-Chaumette07-4">[4]</a>

<ul><li>Eye-in-hand, or end-point open-loop control, where the camera is attached to the moving hand and observing the relative position of the target.</li>

<li>Eye-to-hand, or end-point closed-loop control, where the camera is fixed in the world and observing the target and the motion of the hand.</li></ul>

Visual Servoing control techniques are broadly classified into the following types:<a href="#cite_note-Hutchinson1996-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-Chaumette06-6">[6]</a>

<ul><li>Image-based (IBVS)</li>

<li>Position/<a href="Pose_(computer_vision)" title="Pose (computer vision)">pose</a>-based (PBVS)</li>

<li>Hybrid approach</li></ul>

IBVS was proposed by Weiss and Sanderson.<a href="#cite_note-Weiss83-7">[7]</a> The control law is based on the error between current and desired features on the image plane, and does not involve any estimate of the pose of the target. The features may be the coordinates of visual features, lines or moments of regions. IBVS has difficulties<a href="#cite_note-Chaumette98-8">[8]</a> with motions very large rotations, which has come to be called camera retreat.<a href="#cite_note-Corke00-9">[9]</a>

PBVS is a model-based technique (with a single camera). This is because the pose of the object of interest is estimated with respect to the camera and then a command is issued to the robot controller, which in turn controls the robot. In this case the image features are extracted as well, but are additionally used to estimate 3D information (<a href="3D_pose_estimation" title="3D pose estimation">pose of the object</a> in Cartesian space), hence it is servoing in 3D.

Hybrid approaches use some combination of the 2D and 3D servoing. There have been a few different approaches to hybrid servoing

<ul><li>2-1/2-D Servoing<a href="#cite_note-Malis99-10">[10]</a></li>

<li>Motion partition-based</li>

<li>Partitioned DOF Based<a href="#cite_note-Corke00-9">[9]</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Survey">Survey</h2></div>

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The following description of the prior work is divided into 3 parts

<ul><li>Survey of existing visual servoing methods.</li>

<li>Various features used and their impacts on visual servoing.</li>

<li>Error and stability analysis of visual servoing schemes.</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Survey_of_existing_visual_servoing_methods">Survey of existing visual servoing methods</h3></div>

Visual servo systems, also called servoing, have been around since the early 1980s

,<a href="#cite_note-Agin79-11">[11]</a> although the term visual servo itself was only coined in 1987.<a href="#cite_note-Chaumette07-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hutchinson1996-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-Chaumette06-6">[6]</a>

Visual Servoing is, in essence, a method for robot control where the sensor used is a camera (visual sensor).

Servoing consists primarily of two techniques,<a href="#cite_note-Chaumette06-6">[6]</a>

one involves using information from the image to directly control the degrees of freedom (DOF) of the robot, thus referred to as Image Based Visual Servoing (IBVS).

While the other involves the geometric interpretation of the information extracted from the camera, such as estimating the pose of the target and parameters of the camera (assuming some basic model of the target is known). Other servoing classifications exist based on the variations in each component of a servoing system

,<a href="#cite_note-Hutchinson1996-5">[5]</a>

e.g. the location of the camera, the two kinds are eye-in-hand and hand–eye configurations.

Based on the control loop, the two kinds are end-point-open-loop and end-point-closed-loop. Based on whether the control is applied to the joints (or DOF)

directly or as a position command to a robot controller the two types are

direct servoing and dynamic look-and-move.

Being one of the earliest works <a href="#cite_note-Lee87-12">[12]</a>

the authors proposed a hierarchical

visual servo scheme applied to image-based servoing. The technique relies on

the assumption that a good set of features can be extracted from the object

of interest (e.g. edges, corners and centroids) and used as a partial model

along with global models of the scene and robot. The control strategy is

applied to a simulation of a two and three DOF robot arm.

Feddema et al.<a href="#cite_note-Feddema89-13">[13]</a>

introduced the idea of generating task trajectory

with respect to the feature velocity. This is to ensure that the sensors are

not rendered ineffective (stopping the feedback) for any the robot motions.

The authors assume that the objects are known a priori (e.g. CAD model)

and all the features can be extracted from the object.

The work by Espiau et al.<a href="#cite_note-Espiau92-14">[14]</a>

discusses some of the basic questions in

visual servoing. The discussions concentrate on modeling of the interaction

matrix, camera, visual features (points, lines, etc..).

In <a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a>

an adaptive servoing system was proposed with a look-and-move

servoing architecture. The method used optical flow along with SSD to

provide a confidence metric and a stochastic controller with Kalman filtering

for the control scheme. The system assumes (in the examples) that the plane

of the camera and the plane of the features are parallel.,<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-16">[16]</a> discusses an approach of velocity control using the Jacobian relationship s˙ = Jv˙ . In addition the author uses Kalman filtering, assuming that

the extracted position of the target have inherent errors (sensor errors). A

model of the target velocity is developed and used as a feed-forward input

in the control loop. Also, mentions the importance of looking into kinematic

discrepancy, dynamic effects, repeatability, settling time oscillations and lag

in response.

Corke <a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> poses a set of very critical questions on visual servoing and tries

to elaborate on their implications. The paper primarily focuses the dynamics

of visual servoing. The author tries to address problems like lag and stability,

while also talking about feed-forward paths in the control loop. The paper

also, tries to seek justification for trajectory generation, methodology of axis

control and development of performance metrics.

Chaumette in <a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> provides good insight into the two major problems with

IBVS. One, servoing to a local minima and second, reaching a Jacobian singularity. The author show that image points alone do not make good features

due to the occurrence of singularities. The paper continues, by discussing the

possible additional checks to prevent singularities namely, condition numbers

of J_s and Jˆ+_s, to check the null space of ˆ J_s and J^T_s . One main point that

the author highlights is the relation between local minima and unrealizable

image feature motions.

Over the years many hybrid techniques have been developed.<a href="#cite_note-Chaumette07-4">[4]</a> These

involve computing partial/complete pose from Epipolar Geometry using multiple views or multiple cameras. The values are obtained by direct estimation or through a learning or a statistical scheme. While others have used

a switching approach that changes between image-based and position-based

on a Lyapnov function.<a href="#cite_note-Chaumette07-4">[4]</a>

The early hybrid techniques that used a combination of image-based and

pose-based (2D and 3D information) approaches for servoing required either

a full or partial model of the object in order to extract the pose information

and used a variety of techniques to extract the motion information from the

image.<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> used an affine motion model from the image motion in addition

to a rough polyhedral CAD model to extract the object pose with respect to

the camera to be able to servo onto the object (on the lines of PBVS).

2-1/2-D visual servoing developed by Malis et al.<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> is a well known technique that breaks down the information required for servoing into an organized fashion which decouples rotations and translations. The papers

assume that the desired pose is known a priori. The rotational information is

obtained from partial pose estimation, a homography, (essentially 3D information) giving an axis of rotation and the angle (by computing the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the homography). The translational information is

obtained from the image directly by tracking a set of feature points. The only

conditions being that the feature points being tracked never leave the field of

view and that a depth estimate be predetermined by some off-line technique.

2-1/2-D servoing has been shown to be more stable than the techniques that

preceded it. Another interesting observation with this formulation is that

the authors claim that the visual Jacobian will have no singularities during

the motions.

The hybrid technique developed by Corke and Hutchinson,<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceB-21">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceC-22">[22]</a> popularly called portioned approach partitions the visual (or image) Jacobian into

motions (both rotations and translations) relating X and Y axes and motions related to the Z axis.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceC-22">[22]</a> outlines the technique, to break out columns

of the visual Jacobian that correspond to the Z axis translation and rotation

(namely, the third and sixth columns). The partitioned approach is shown to

handle the Chaumette Conundrum discussed in.<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> This technique requires

a good depth estimate in order to function properly.

<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> outlines a hybrid approach where the servoing task is split into two,

namely main and secondary. The main task is keep the features of interest within the field of view. While the secondary task is to mark a fixation

point and use it as a reference to bring the camera to the desired pose. The

technique does need a depth estimate from an off-line procedure. The paper

discusses two examples for which depth estimates are obtained from robot

odometry and by assuming that all features are on a plane. The secondary

task is achieved by using the notion of parallax. The features that are tracked

are chosen by an initialization performed on the first frame, which are typically points.

<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> carries out a discussion on two aspects of visual servoing, feature

modeling and model-based tracking. Primary assumption made is that the

3D model of the object is available. The authors highlights the notion that

ideal features should be chosen such that the DOF of motion can be decoupled

by linear relation. The authors also introduce an estimate of the target

velocity into the interaction matrix to improve tracking performance. The

results are compared to well known servoing techniques even when occlusions

occur.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Various_features_used_and_their_impacts_on_visual_servoing">Various features used and their impacts on visual servoing</h3></div>

This section discusses the work done in the field of visual servoing. We try

to track the various techniques in the use of features. Most of the work

has used image points as visual features. The formulation of the interaction

matrix in <a href="#cite_note-Hutchinson1996-5">[5]</a> assumes points in the image are used to represent the target.

There has some body of work that deviates from the use of points and use

feature regions, lines, image moments and moment invariants.<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a>

In,<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> the authors discuss an affine based tracking of image features.

The image features are chosen based on a discrepancy measure, which is

based on the deformation that the features undergo. The features used were

texture patches. One of key points of the paper was that it highlighted the

need to look at features for improving visual servoing.

In <a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> the authors look into choice of image features (the same question

was also discussed in <a href="#cite_note-Hutchinson1996-5">[5]</a> in the context of tracking). The effect of the choice

of image features on the control law is discussed with respect to just the

depth axis. Authors consider the distance between feature points and the

area of an object as features. These features are used in the control law with

slightly different forms to highlight the effects on performance. It was noted

that better performance was achieved when the servo error was proportional

to the change in depth axis.

<a href="#cite_note-chaumette02-29">[29]</a> provides one of the early discussions of the use of moments. The

authors provide a new formulation of the interaction matrix using the velocity

of the moments in the image, albeit complicated. Even though the moments

are used, the moments are of the small change in the location of contour

points with the use of Green’s theorem. The paper also tries to determine

the set of features (on a plane) to for a 6 DOF robot.

In <a href="#cite_note-chaumette04-30">[30]</a> discusses the use of image moments to formulate the visual Jacobian.

This formulation allows for decoupling of the DOF based on type of moments

chosen. The simple case of this formulation is notionally similar to the 2-1/2-

D servoing.<a href="#cite_note-chaumette04-30">[30]</a> The time variation of the moments (m˙ij) are determined using

the motion between two images and Greens Theorem. The relation between

m˙ij and the velocity screw (v) is given as m˙_ij = L_m_ij v. This technique

avoids camera calibration by assuming that the objects are planar and using

a depth estimate. The technique works well in the planar case but tends to

be complicated in the general case. The basic idea is based on the work in [4]

Moment Invariants have been used in.<a href="#cite_note-tahri03-31">[31]</a> The key idea being to find

the feature vector that decouples all the DOF of motion. Some observations

made were that centralized moments are invariant for 2D translations. A

complicated polynomial form is developed for 2D rotations. The technique

follows teaching-by-showing, hence requiring the values of desired depth and

area of object (assuming that the plane of camera and object are parallel,

and the object is planar). Other parts of the feature vector are invariants

R3, R4. The authors claim that occlusions can be handled.

<a href="#cite_note-tahri04-32">[32]</a> and <a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> build on the work described in.<a href="#cite_note-chaumette02-29">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-tahri03-31">[31]</a><a href="#cite_note-tahri04-32">[32]</a> The major differ-

ence being that the authors use a technique similar to,<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-16">[16]</a> where the task is

broken into two (in the case where the features are not parallel to the cam-

era plane). A virtual rotation is performed to bring the featured parallel to

the camera plane.<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> consolidates the work done by the authors on image

moments.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Error_and_stability_analysis_of_visual_servoing_schemes">Error and stability analysis of visual servoing schemes</h3></div>

Espiau in <a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> showed from purely experimental work that image based visual servoing (IBVS)

is robust to calibration errors. The author used a camera with no explicit

calibration along with point matching and without pose estimation. The

paper looks at the effect of errors and uncertainty on the terms in the interaction matrix from an experimental approach. The targets used were points

and were assumed to be planar.

A similar study was done in <a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> where the

authors carry out experimental evaluation of a few uncalibrated visual servo

systems that were popular in the 90’s. The major outcome was the experimental evidence of the effectiveness of visual servo control over conventional

control methods.

Kyrki et al.<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a> analyze servoing errors for position based and 2-1/2-D

visual servoing. The technique involves determining the error in extracting

image position and propagating it to pose estimation and servoing control.

Points from the image are mapped to points in the world a priori to obtain a mapping (which is basically the homography, although not explicitly stated

in the paper). This mapping is broken down to pure rotations and translations. Pose estimation is performed using standard technique from Computer

Vision. Pixel errors are transformed to the pose. These are propagating to

the controller. An observation from the analysis shows that errors in the

image plane are proportional to the depth and error in the depth-axis is

proportional to square of depth.

Measurement errors in visual servoing have been looked into extensively.

Most error functions relate to two aspects of visual servoing. One being

steady state error (once servoed) and two on the stability of the control

loop. Other servoing errors that have been of interest are those that arise

from pose estimation and camera calibration. In,<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> the authors extend the

work done in <a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> by considering global stability in the presence of intrinsic

and extrinsic calibration errors.<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> provides an approach to bound the task

function tracking error. In,<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> the authors use teaching-by-showing visual

servoing technique. Where the desired pose is known a priori and the robot

is moved from a given pose. The main aim of the paper is to determine the

upper bound on the positioning error due to image noise using a convex-

optimization technique.

<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> provides a discussion on stability analysis with respect the uncertainty

in depth estimates. The authors conclude the paper with the observation that

for unknown target geometry a more accurate depth estimate is required in

order to limit the error.

Many of the visual servoing techniques <a href="#cite_note-ReferenceB-21">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceC-22">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a> implicitly assume that

only one object is present in the image and the relevant feature for tracking

along with the area of the object are available. Most techniques require either

a partial pose estimate or a precise depth estimate of the current and desired

pose.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Software">Software</h2></div>

<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sourceforge.net/projects/vstoolbox">Matlab toolbox for visual servoing</a>.</li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.robot.uji.es/research/projects/javiss">Java-based visual servoing simulator.</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.irisa.fr/lagadic/visp">ViSP</a> (ViSP states for "Visual Servoing Platform") is a modular software that allows fast development of visual servoing applications.<a href="#cite_note-Marchand05a-44">[44]</a></li></ul>

<ul><li><a href="Robotics" title="Robotics">Robotics</a></li>

<li><a href="Robot" title="Robot">Robot</a></li>

<li><a href="Computer_Vision" class="mw-redirect" title="Computer Vision">Computer Vision</a></li>

<li><a href="Machine_Vision" class="mw-redirect" title="Machine Vision">Machine Vision</a></li>

<li><a href="Robot_control" title="Robot control">Robot control</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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<li id="cite_note-Chaumette98-8"><a href="#cite_ref-Chaumette98_8-0">^</a> F. Chaumette. Potential problems of stability and convergence in image-based and position-based visual servoing. In D. Kriegman, G. Hager, and S. Morse, editors, The confluence of vision and control, volume 237 of Lecture Notes in Control and Information Sciences, pages 66–78. Springer-Verlag, 1998.

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<li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> E Marchand, P. Bouthemy, F Chaumette, and V. Moreau. Robust visual tracking by coupling 2d and 3d pose estimation. In Proceedings of IEEE International Conference on Image Processing, 1999.

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<li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> E. Malis. Hybrid vision-based robot control robust to large calibration errors on both intrinsic and extrinsic camera parameters. In European Control Conference, pages 289–293, September 2001.

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<li id="cite_note-ReferenceB-21">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceB_21-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceB_21-1">b</a> P. Corke and S. Hutchinson. A new hybrid image-based visual servo control scheme. In Proceedings of the 39th IEEE Conference on Decision and control, December 2000

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<li id="cite_note-24"><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a> C. Collewet and F. Chaumette. Positioning a camera with respect to planar objects of unknown shapes by coupling 2-d visual servoing and 3-d estimations. IEEE Transactions on Robotics and Automation, 18(3):322–333, June 2002

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<li id="cite_note-chaumette02-29">^ <a href="#cite_ref-chaumette02_29-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-chaumette02_29-1">b</a> F. Chaumette. A first step toward visual servoing using image moments. In Pro- ceedings of the IEEE Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems, pages 378–383, October 2002.

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<li id="cite_note-chaumette04-30">^ <a href="#cite_ref-chaumette04_30-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-chaumette04_30-1">b</a> F. Chaumette. Image moment:a general and useful set of features for visual servoing. IEEE Transactions on Robotics, 20(4):713–723, August 2004

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<li id="cite_note-tahri03-31">^ <a href="#cite_ref-tahri03_31-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-tahri03_31-1">b</a> O. Tahri and F. Chaumette. Application of moment invariants to visual servoing. In Proceedings of the IEEE Conference on Robots and Automation, pages 4276–4281, September 2003

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<li id="cite_note-tahri04-32">^ <a href="#cite_ref-tahri04_32-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-tahri04_32-1">b</a> O. Tahri and F. Chaumette. Image moments: Generic descriptors for decoupled image-based visual servoing. In Proceedings of the IEEE Conference on Robotics and Automation, pages 1861–1867, April 2004

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<li id="cite_note-34"><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a> O. Tahri and F. Chaumette. Point-based and region-based image moments for vi- sual servoing of planar objects. IEEE Transactions on Robotics, 21(6):1116–1127, December 2005

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<li id="cite_note-37"><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a> V. Kyrki, D. Kragic, and H Christensen. Measurement errors in visual servoing. In Proceedings of the IEEE Conference on Robotics and Automation, pages 1861–1867, April 2004

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<li id="cite_note-38"><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a> E. Malis. Hybrid vision-based robot control robust to large calibration errors on both intrinsic and extrinsic camera parameters. In European Control Conference, pages 289–293, September 2001

</li>

<li id="cite_note-39"><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a> E. Malis, F. Chaumette, and S. Boudet. 2-1/2-d visual servoing. IEEE Transactions on Robotics and Automation, 15(2):238–250, April 1999

</li>

<li id="cite_note-40"><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a> G. Morel, P. Zanne, and F. Plestan. Robust visual servoing: Bounding the task func- tion tracking errors. IEEE Transactions on Control System Technology, 13(6):998– 1009, November 2009

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<li id="cite_note-41"><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a> G. Chesi and Y. S. Hung. Image noise induces errors in camera positioning. IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence, 29(8):1476–1480, August 2007

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<li id="cite_note-42"><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a> E. Malis and P. Rives. Robustness of image-based visual servoing with respect to depth distribution errors. In IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation, September 2003

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<li id="cite_note-43"><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a> E. Malis, F. Chaumette, and S. Boudet. 2-1/2-d visual servoing. IEEE Transactions on Robotics and Automation, 15(2):238–250, April 1999

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Marchand05a-44"><a href="#cite_ref-Marchand05a_44-0">^</a> E. Marchand, F. Spindler, F. Chaumette. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.irisa.fr/lagadic/publi/publi/Marchand05b-eng.html">ViSP for visual servoing: a generic software platform with a wide class of robot control skills.</a> IEEE Robotics and Automation Magazine, Special Issue on "Software Packages for Vision-Based Control of Motion", P. Oh, D. Burschka (Eds.), 12(4):40-52, December 2005.

</li>

</ol></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>

<ul><li>S. A. Hutchinson, G. D. Hager, and P. I. Corke. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://citeseer.ist.psu.edu/76215.html">A tutorial on visual servo control.</a> IEEE Trans. Robot. Automat., 12(5):651—670, Oct. 1996.</li>

<li>F. Chaumette, S. Hutchinson. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.irisa.fr/lagadic/publi/publi/Chaumette06a-eng.html">Visual Servo Control, Part I: Basic Approaches.</a> IEEE Robotics and Automation Magazine, 13(4):82-90, December 2006.</li>

<li>F. Chaumette, S. Hutchinson. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.irisa.fr/lagadic/publi/publi/Chaumette07a-eng.html">Visual Servo Control, Part II: Advanced Approaches.</a> IEEE Robotics and Automation Magazine, 14(1):109-118, March 2007.</li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091214154858/http://www.robot.uji.es/EURON/visualservoing/tutorial/">Notes from IROS 2004 tutorial on advanced visual servoing</a>.</li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.springer.com/engineering/robotics/book/978-3-540-23957-4">Springer Handbook of Robotics</a> Chapter 24: Visual Servoing and Visual Tracking (François Chaumette, Seth Hutchinson)</li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://robotics.engr.wisc.edu/">UW-Madison, Robotics and Intelligent Systems Lab</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.irisa.fr/lagadic/welcome-eng.html">INRIA Lagadic research group</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://limbs.lcsr.jhu.edu/Main_Page">Johns Hopkins University, LIMBS Laboratory</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sirslab.dii.unisi.it/research/vision/">University of Siena, SIRSLab Vision & Robotics Group</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ic.is.tohoku.ac.jp/en/">Tohoku University, Intelligent Control Systems Laboratory</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www-sop.inria.fr/documents/arobas/index_en.shtml">INRIA Arobas research group</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://robots.lasmea.univ-bpclermont.fr/">LASMEA, Rosace group</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www-cvr.ai.uiuc.edu/~seth/">UIUC, Beckman Institute</a></li></ul>

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</style><div id="Robotics434" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Robotics" title="Robotics">Robotics</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Main articles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Outline_of_robotics" title="Outline of robotics">Outline</a></li>

<li><a href="Glossary_of_robotics" title="Glossary of robotics">Glossary</a></li>

<li><a href="Index_of_robotics_articles" title="Index of robotics articles">Index</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_robots" title="History of robots">History</a></li>

<li><a href="Geography_of_robotics" title="Geography of robotics">Geography</a></li>

<li><a href="Robot_ethics" title="Robot ethics">Ethics</a></li>

<li><a href="Robot_competition" title="Robot competition">Competitions</a></li>

<li><a href="Competitions_and_prizes_in_artificial_intelligence" title="Competitions and prizes in artificial intelligence">AI competitions</a></li></ul>

</div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="8" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Robot" title="Robot">Types</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Aerobot" title="Aerobot">Aerobot</a></li>

<li><a href="Anthropomorphic" class="mw-redirect" title="Anthropomorphic">Anthropomorphic</a>

<ul><li><a href="Humanoid_robot" title="Humanoid robot">Humanoid</a></li>

<li><a href="Android_(robot)" title="Android (robot)">Android</a></li>

<li><a href="Cyborg" title="Cyborg">Cyborg</a></li>

<li><a href="Gynoid" title="Gynoid">Gynoid</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Claytronics" class="mw-redirect" title="Claytronics">Claytronics</a></li>

<li><a href="Companion_robot" title="Companion robot">Companion</a></li>

<li><a href="Automaton" title="Automaton">Automaton</a>

<ul><li><a href="Animatronics" title="Animatronics">Animatronic</a>

<ul><li><a href="Audio-Animatronics" title="Audio-Animatronics">Audio-Animatronics</a></li></ul></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Industrial_robot" title="Industrial robot">Industrial</a></li>

<li><a href="Articulated_robot" title="Articulated robot">Articulated</a>

<li><a href="Domestic_robot" title="Domestic robot">Domestic</a></li>

<li><a href="Educational_robotics" title="Educational robotics">Educational</a></li>

<li><a href="Entertainment_robot" title="Entertainment robot">Entertainment</a></li>

<li><a href="Juggling_robot" title="Juggling robot">Juggling</a></li>

<li><a href="Military_robot" title="Military robot">Military</a></li>

<li><a href="Medical_robot" title="Medical robot">Medical</a></li>

<li><a href="Service_robot" title="Service robot">Service</a></li>

<li><a href="Disability_robot" class="mw-redirect" title="Disability robot">Disability</a></li>

<li><a href="Agricultural_robot" title="Agricultural robot">Agricultural</a></li>

<li><a href="Automated_restaurant" title="Automated restaurant">Food service</a></li>

<li><a href="Automated_retail" title="Automated retail">Retail</a></li>

<li><a href="BEAM_robotics" title="BEAM robotics">BEAM robotics</a></li>

<li><a href="Soft_robotics" title="Soft robotics">Soft robotics</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Classifications</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Biorobotics" title="Biorobotics">Biorobotics</a></li>

<li><a href="Cloud_robotics" title="Cloud robotics">Cloud robotics</a></li>

<li><a href="Continuum_robot" title="Continuum robot">Continuum robot</a></li>

<li><a href="Unmanned_vehicle" class="mw-redirect" title="Unmanned vehicle">Unmanned vehicle</a>

<ul><li><a href="Unmanned_aerial_vehicle" title="Unmanned aerial vehicle">aerial</a></li>

<li><a href="Unmanned_ground_vehicle" title="Unmanned ground vehicle">ground</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Mobile_robot" title="Mobile robot">Mobile robot</a></li>

<li><a href="Microbotics" title="Microbotics">Microbotics</a></li>

<li><a href="Nanorobotics" title="Nanorobotics">Nanorobotics</a></li>

<li><a href="Necrobotics" title="Necrobotics">Necrobotics</a></li>

<li><a href="Robotic_spacecraft" class="mw-redirect" title="Robotic spacecraft">Robotic spacecraft</a>

<ul><li><a href="Space_probe" class="mw-redirect" title="Space probe">Space probe</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Swarm_robotics" title="Swarm robotics">Swarm</a></li>

<li><a href="Telerobotics" title="Telerobotics">Telerobotics</a></li>

<li><a href="Autonomous_underwater_vehicle" title="Autonomous underwater vehicle">Underwater</a>

<ul><li><a href="Remotely_operated_underwater_vehicle" title="Remotely operated underwater vehicle">remotely-operated</a></li>

<li><a href="Robotic_fish" class="mw-redirect" title="Robotic fish">Robotic fish</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Robot_locomotion" title="Robot locomotion">Locomotion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Continuous_track" title="Continuous track">Tracks</a></li>

<li><a href="Legged_robot" title="Legged robot">Walking</a>

<ul><li><a href="Hexapod_(robotics)" title="Hexapod (robotics)">Hexapod</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Climber_(BEAM)" class="mw-redirect" title="Climber (BEAM)">Climbing</a></li>

<li><a href="Electric_unicycle" title="Electric unicycle">Electric unicycle</a></li>

<li><a href="Robotic_fin" class="mw-redirect" title="Robotic fin">Robotic fins</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Robotic_navigation" class="mw-redirect" title="Robotic navigation">Navigation</a> and <a href="Robotic_mapping" title="Robotic mapping">mapping</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Motion_planning" title="Motion planning">Motion planning</a></li>

<li><a href="Simultaneous_localization_and_mapping" title="Simultaneous localization and mapping">Simultaneous localization and mapping</a></li>

<li><a href="Visual_odometry" title="Visual odometry">Visual odometry</a></li>

<li><a href="Vision-guided_robot_systems" title="Vision-guided robot systems">Vision-guided robot systems</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Research</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Evolutionary_robotics" title="Evolutionary robotics">Evolutionary</a></li>

<li><a href="Robotics_simulator" title="Robotics simulator">Simulator</a></li>

<li><a href="Robotics_suite" title="Robotics suite">Suite</a></li>

<li><a href="Open-source_robotics" title="Open-source robotics">Open-source</a></li>

<li><a href="Robot_software" title="Robot software">Software</a></li>

<li><a href="Adaptable_robotics" title="Adaptable robotics">Adaptable</a></li>

<li><a href="Developmental_robotics" title="Developmental robotics">Developmental</a></li>

<li><a href="Human%E2%80%93robot_interaction" title="Human–robot interaction">Human–robot interaction</a></li>

<li><a href="Robotic_paradigm" title="Robotic paradigm">Paradigms</a></li>

<li><a href="Perceptual_robotics" title="Perceptual robotics">Perceptual</a></li>

<li><a href="Situated_robotics" title="Situated robotics">Situated</a></li>

<li><a href="Ubiquitous_robot" title="Ubiquitous robot">Ubiquitous</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="List_of_robotics_companies" title="List of robotics companies">Companies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Amazon_Robotics" title="Amazon Robotics">Amazon Robotics</a></li>

<li><a href="Anybots" title="Anybots">Anybots</a></li>

<li><a href="Barrett_Technology" title="Barrett Technology">Barrett Technology</a></li>

<li><a href="Boston_Dynamics" title="Boston Dynamics">Boston Dynamics</a></li>

<li><a href="Doosan_Robotics" title="Doosan Robotics">Doosan Robotics</a></li>

<li><a href="Energid_Technologies" title="Energid Technologies">Energid Technologies</a></li>

<li><a href="FarmWise" title="FarmWise">FarmWise</a></li>

<li><a href="FANUC" title="FANUC">FANUC</a></li>

<li><a href="Figure_AI" title="Figure AI">Figure AI</a></li>

<li><a href="Foster-Miller" title="Foster-Miller">Foster-Miller</a></li>

<li><a href="Harvest_Automation" title="Harvest Automation">Harvest Automation</a></li>

<li><a href="HD_Hyundai_Robotics" title="HD Hyundai Robotics">HD Hyundai Robotics</a></li>

<li><a href="Honeybee_Robotics" title="Honeybee Robotics">Honeybee Robotics</a></li>

<li><a href="Intuitive_Surgical" title="Intuitive Surgical">Intuitive Surgical</a></li>

<li><a href="IRobot" title="IRobot">IRobot</a></li>

<li><a href="Rainbow_Robotics" title="Rainbow Robotics">Rainbow Robotics</a></li>

<li><a href="Starship_Technologies" title="Starship Technologies">Starship Technologies</a></li>

<li><a href="Symbotic" title="Symbotic">Symbotic</a></li>

<li><a href="Universal_Robotics" title="Universal Robotics">Universal Robotics</a></li>

<li><a href="Wolf_Robotics" title="Wolf Robotics">Wolf Robotics</a></li>

<li><a href="Yaskawa_Electric_Corporation" title="Yaskawa Electric Corporation">Yaskawa</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Critique_of_work" title="Critique of work">Critique of work</a></li>

<li><a href="Powered_exoskeleton" class="mw-redirect" title="Powered exoskeleton">Powered exoskeleton</a></li>

<li><a href="Workplace_robotics_safety" title="Workplace robotics safety">Workplace robotics safety</a>

<ul><li><a href="Robotic_tech_vest" title="Robotic tech vest">Robotic tech vest</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Technological_unemployment" title="Technological unemployment">Technological unemployment</a></li>

<li><a href="Terrainability" title="Terrainability">Terrainability</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_fictional_robots_and_androids" title="List of fictional robots and androids">Fictional robots</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div>

<ul><li> Category</li>

<li> <a href="Outline_of_robotics" title="Outline of robotics">Outline</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div><div><div class="zim-footer">

This article is issued from <a class="external text" title="Last edited on 2024-11-22" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/?title=Visual_servoing&oldid=1258898147">Wikipedia</a>. The text is available under <a class="external text" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en">Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0</a> unless otherwise noted. Additional terms may apply for the media files.

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